The pharmaceutical biotechnology industry is based on the production of recombinant proteins in mammalian cells. These proteins are essential to the therapeutic treatment of many diseases and conditions. In many cases, the market for these proteins exceeds a billion dollars a year. Examples of proteins produced recombinantly in mammalian cells include erythropoietin, factor VIII, factor IX, and insulin. For many of these proteins, expression in mammalian cells is preferred over expression in prokaryotic cells because of the need for correct post-translational modification (e.g., glycosylation or silation; see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 5,721,121, incorporated herein by reference).
Several methods are known for creating host cells that express recombinant proteins. In the most basic methods, a nucleic acid construct containing a gene encoding a heterologous protein and appropriate regulatory regions is introduced into the host cell and allowed to integrate. Methods of introduction include calcium phosphate precipitation, microinjection, lipofection, and electroporation. In other methods, a selection scheme is used to amplify the introduced nucleic acid construct. In these methods, the cells are co-transfected with a gene encoding an amplifiable selection marker and a gene encoding a heterologous protein (See, e.g., Schroder and Friedl, Biotech. Bioeng. 53(6):547-59 [1997]). After selection of the initial transformants, the transfected genes are amplified by the stepwise increase of the selective agent (e.g., dihydrofolate reductase) in the culture medium. In some cases, the exogenous gene may be amplified several hundred-fold by these procedures. Other methods of recombinant protein expression in mammalian cells utilize transfection with episomal vectors (e.g., plasmids).
Current methods for creating mammalian cell lines or expression of recombinant proteins suffer from several drawbacks. (See, e.g., Mielke et al., Biochem. 35:2239-52 [1996]). Episomal systems allow for high expression levels of the recombinant protein, but are frequently only stable for a short time period (See, e.g., Klehr and Bode, Mol. Genet. (Life Sci. Adv.) 7:47-52 [1988]). Mammalian cell lines containing integrated exogenous genes are somewhat more stable, but there is increasing evidence that stability depends on the presence of only a few copies or even a single copy of the exogenous gene.
Standard transfection techniques favor the introduction of multiple copies of the transgene into the genome of the host cell. Multiple integration of the transgene has, in many cases, proven to be intrinsically unstable. This intrinsic instability may be due to the characteristic head-to-tail mode of integration which promotes the loss of coding sequences by homologous recombination (See, e.g., Weidle et al., Gene 66:193-203 [1988]) especially when the transgenes are transcribed (See, e.g., McBurney et al., Somatic Cell Molec. Genet. 20:529-40 [1994]). Host cells also have epigenetic defense mechanisms directed against multiple copy integration events. In plants, this mechanism has been termed “cosuppression.” (See, e.g., Allen et al., Plant Cell 5:603-13 [1993]). Indeed, it is not uncommon that the level of expression is inversely related to copy number. These observations are consistent with findings that multiple copies of exogenous genes become inactivated by methylation (See, e.g., Mehtali et al., Gene 91:179-84 [1990]) and subsequent mutagenesis (See, e.g., Kricker et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 89:1075-79 [1992]) or silenced by heterochromatin formation (See, e.g., Dorer and Henikoff, Cell 77:993-1002 [1994]).
Accordingly, what is needed in the art are improved methods for making host cells that express recombinant proteins. Preferably, the host cells will be stable over extended periods of time and express the protein encoded by a transgene at high levels.